THE UNKNOWN COROZAL TOWN OF YESTERYEARS

Years ago in Corozal there was a division more obvious than there is today. It was a division of class and race in a town that had only two main streets. Front Street and Back Street. These streets were basically where Fourth and Seventh Avenue are today.

The town was divided into Barrio, the area north of the center of town, and Bacadilla, the area south of the Center.

People of these two areas, especially the youth, did not get along well. There was always a fight or two occurring betweem the Bacadilla and Barrio groups.

Another obvious show of difference was in the dances that were held. Dances were held for the different levels. There were dances that were for the affluent and dances for the middle and lower class citizens. People of the two group NEVER went to the same functions.

Some prominent names were the Orosco's and the Romero's.

The District Commissioner at one time was my grandfather, Edward LLewelyn Ysaguirre. He had the power to sentence a man to jail and to forgive and give a pardon if he felt it was deserving.

Edward L. Ysaguirre was a very strict man. He was called DC and if you look at the birth certificate of the 1950's it is probable that his signature will be on it.

After he retired, people would bring him fruits from their farms as payment for him to read letters and other documents for them or for him to write their letters or wills. Many people were unable to pay cash for the services he rendered to them so he would take the produce of their farm in payment. He had many friends in the rural areas of Corozal and countrywide for he served the government of Belize in almost every district. He came to Corozal when it was time to retire because he asked my grandmother where she would like to live of all the places they had been. I am sure glad they chose Corozal Town for I am attached to this town. It is home to me and I enjoy living here.

THE UNTOLD HISTORY OF BELIZE- THE ROAD TO INDEPENDENCE

Confrontation in Corozal Town, Belize

The year before Belize got its independence was one of turmoil between the two political parties of the country. The People's United Party, under the leadership of the Right Honourable George Cadle Price (the then Premier of Belize), was going full force to attaining independence from Britain. Meanwhile, the Opposition in the United Democratic Party was crying for a referendum and for talks on the Heads of Agreement.

The Honourable Florencio Marin of the South of Corozal District organized a march into the town of Corozal in support of Independence. His followers who come from the rural areas were mostly farmers.

They approached the entrance of Corozal Town, Belize and organized how they would march down Fourth Avenue. Then the march began. As they turned the curve to enter Fourth Avenue they were obstructed by a huge cane loader. It was the property of Mr. Roque Marin who lived on that street. Needless to say, Mr. Roque Marin was a strong supporter of the United Democratic Party.

It was noticeable that there were quite a number of oppositionists on the roof tops of some buildings on Fourth Avenue. I was at home at the corner of Fourth Avenue so I can tell you what I saw from that vantage point. Many of the marchers who had left their trucks parked at the entrance where they had organized the beginning of the march, ran back to their trucks. They returned with shotguns and machetes. I remember feeling a wave of fear run over me. There was definately going to be trouble.

To remove the cane loader from blocking the road, a number of men heaved it out of the way and the march continued. I sensed that the best place for me was my house so I never left it. I could eventually hear the sound of shots being fired and recieved a phone call a little while later.
My fears were confirmed. There was a confrontation once more on Fourth Avenue.

On top of a building at the corner of Fourth Avenue and Third Street South were some young men armed with malivolt coctails. They threw them at the marchers and in return the marchers replied with their shotguns. I know for a fact the a fellow nicknamed "Piney" got some shotgun pellets in his head.

This situation increased with the opposition revolting and on Fifth Avenue at Young's Drugstore the UDP turned over Mr. Young's car. I had an aunt and two cousins visiting from California at the time and they were in the house next door to the drug store. She called in a hysterical voice to tell us that they were leaving for Chetumal, Quintana Roo, Mexico (our neighbours in the North) because she feared for her children and herself. Things looked really bad.

Be the end of the confrontation one Mr. Riveroll (a UDP supporter) was dead and the belief to this day is that he was killed by his very own brother who was a PUP.

To this day Hon. Florencio Marin is one of the most charismatic leaders of the PUP and his people in the South of Corozal still strongly support him. He sits in the House of Representative as an elected member of government and is Minister of Lands.

Years after this event, when the UDP attained power they constructed a town clock in the Central Park in honour of the fallen Mr. Riveroll.

I hope you enjoyed this short chapter on the untold history of Belize

Yours truly,
Brenda Ysaguirre

IMPORTANT YEARS IN BELIZEAN HISTORY IN CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER

Chronological Table
Toward an Independent Belize

200 - 800 A.D. -Maya cities flourish all through Belize.
900 1000 A.D. -Maya cultural decline in Southern and Central America
1520s -Cortez crosses Southern Belize
1530s -Montejo attempts to conquer Belize for Spain. Nachankan and Belize Maya defeated Spanish.
1650s -British buccaneers begin to settle Belizean coast.
1660 -Bartholomew Sharpe, famous British pirate, makes Belize his base and begins to harvest logwood for sale to U.K.
1670 -Godolphin (Madrid) Treaty opening all of the Americas to British colonization.
1717 -Spanish force from Peten drives out Baymen.
1720s -First record of African slaves in Belize.
1754 -Spanish drive out Baymen who return within a year.
1763 -Treaty of Paris: Spain permitted British settlers to cut logwood; no boundaries defined.
1765 -Admiral Burnaby codified Settlement's Regulations, known as "Burnaby's Code". Public meetings passed resolutions boundaries of logwood works.
1765/68/73 -Slaves revolt.
1779 -Spanish forces capture Belize and take Baymen and slaves to Yucatan. Slaves freed after declaring loyalty to Spain. Baymen sent to Cuba.
1783 -Treaty of Versailles: Spain recognizes British rights to cut logwood in Belize between the Hondo and Belize rivers.
1784 -Settlers return to Belize; Despard appointed first Superintendent of the settlement.
1786 -Convention of London expands British rights in Belize to the Sibun and permits mahogany cutting.
1787 -British evacuate Mosquito Shore and 2,214 "Shoremen" and their slaves came to Belize. Public meeting determined qualifications for owning mahogany works.
1788 -Maya attacked mahogany works on New River.
1798 -Battle of St. George's Caye
Top
1802 -150 Garifuna already settled at Stann Creek.
1807 -Abolition of slave trade.
1817 -Superintendent takes away power of settlers to issue lands; large body of runaway slaves reported in the interior.
1820 -Slave revolt.
1821 -Mexican and Central American independence.
1831 -Act passed to give equal rights to "colored subjects" as to whites.
1832 -Large number of Garifuna arrive in Belize (Garifuna Settlement Day celebrated each year on Novemeber 19 with a Public and Bank Holiday).
1834/38 -Slavery abolished. Land ordered to be sold and no longer issued free.
1847 -War of the Castes in Yucatan sends thousands of refugees into Belize (Pan American Day celebrated each year in October).
1856 -North side of Belize City destroyed by fire.
1859 -British- Guatemala Treaty over Belize. British Honduras Company (later B.E.C.) formed.
1862 -Belize becomes a Colony of "British Honduras".
1865 -Labourers brought from West Indian islands and China, especially for work on sugar estates of B.H. Co.
1866 -British troops routed by Maya in Yalbac Hills.
1867 -Reinforced British Troops destroy Maya villages and crops in Yalbac.
1871 -Belize declared Crown Colony after Assembly dissolved itself in 1870. Three of the four unofficial members in new Legislative Council represent landed interests.
1894 -Constables mutiny. Belizeans workers riot for better pay.
Top
1906 -Belize City gets electricity.
1914 -World War I - Many Belizeans volunteers served.
1919 -Belizean troops riot upon return home.
1922 -Marcus Garvey visits Belize.
1929 -Great Depression begins.
1931 -Great Hurricane - over 2,000 dead.
1933 -Guatemala re- asserts claim to Belize.
1934 -Antonio Soberanis leads workers protests.
1939 -World War II.
1949 –British Honduras dollar devalued.
1950 -Founding of the P.U.P.
1952 -National strike led by General Workers Union.
1954 -Vote for all adults.
1964 -Self Government.
1968 -The "Webster Proposals": Draft treaty presented by U.S.A. mediator for Anglo- Guatemalan dispute, rejected by government and peo ple.
1970s -Internalization of Belize's cause.
1971 -Belize joins CARIFTA. Belmopan becomes capital of Belize.
1973 -Country's name legally changed to "Belize". Aliens Landholding Ordinance passed.
1975 -First pro- Belize resolution passed by General Assembly of United Nations.
1976 -Belize given "special status" in Non-Aligned Movement.
1981 -IndependenceBelize joins Commonwealth, United Nations and Non- Aligned Movement.

COPYRIGHT INFORMATION
Edited by Robert Leslie
Design by A to Z Graphics
We are grateful to the Education Development Centre, Ministry of Education for their helpful comments to the manuscript.
Photographs by: Archivo General de Indias, Mina Barcenas, Belize Information Service, Belize National Archives, Cubola Archives, ICAQRO, Mexican Embassy, Ygnacio Rivero, Royal Commonwealth Society, St. John's College and the University College of Belize.
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Belice en el Escenario Mundial/Belize on the World Scene

Chapter 14
Since its birth in 1950, the goal of the Belize nationalist movement was self-government and independence. Within a few years the spirit of nationalism had taken root. People from all over the country considered themselves to be citizens of one nation. In 1961, after self-government, the British government agreed that Belize could become constitutionally independent within a short time. By that time colonialism was on the retreat throughout the world.
In 1960 the United Nations passed a historic resolution fully supporting independence for colonial territories and peoples. Many countries were emerging from colonialism to independence, some after years of armed struggle. In the Caribbean, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago became independent in 1962. It was time for Belize to become independent also.
The only reason Belize had to wait more than 20 years before achieving independence was because the government of Guatemala insisted on a land claim to Belize. Guatemala threatened to use force against Belize if it became independent without first settling the claim. Because of the need to find support for these issues, Belize was involved on the world stage even before it became independent.
The Guatemalan Claim
When the Latin American countries became independent from Spain in 1821, they established the rule that the boundaries of these new republics would be the same as when the territories were ruled by Spain. Guatemala claimed that Belize had been part of the Spanish territory. However, the British argued that they had been in control of the area before 1821, and so this rule did not apply to Belize.
At the core of Guatemala's claim to Belizean territory is the Anglo-Guatemalan Treaty of 1859. From the British point of view, the agreement simply declared the boundaries of an area Britain already ruled. Those boundaries still exist today. From the Guatemalan point of view, which was developed after the agreement was signed, it was a treaty of cession, by which Guatemala gave up right to the land. For the treaty to take effect, Britain had to help build a road to improve communications between Guatemala and the Atlantic coast. Because this road was never built, Guatemala insisted that the treaty was broken. In 1945, a new Guatemalan constitution declared Belize a part of Guatemala, and the country threatened to invade. Guatemala threatened similar action throughout Belize's recent history, such as in 1972, 1975 and 1977. Each time an increased British military presence prevented the invasions.
Negotiations
Until 1962, the elected representatives of Belize had no say in the negotiations concerning Guatemala's claim to Belizean territory. Since then, the history of these negotiations can be divided into three parts: the secretive period, the break-out period, and the post-independence period.
During the secretive period from 1962 to 1975, negotiations were carried out behind closed doors. Little information was given to the people of Belize or of the world. The Belizeans were observers in the British team.
The U.S. stayed out of the dispute, expressing its desire for the countries to arrive at a settlement through negotiations. But in the 1960's, former Guatemalan President Ydigoras Fuentes claimed that while he was President in 1961, the U.S. had agreed to support Guatemala in return for using Guatemalan territory as a base for the invasion of Cuba.
In 1965, Guatemala, Britain and Belize agreed to ask U.S. President Lyndon Johnson to mediate the dispute. The proposals presented by the mediator Bethuel Webster three years later would have given Guatemala a large amount of control over the affairs of Belize. The Belize government totally rejected them.
In 1975, after 13 years of secret and fruitless negotiations, the government of Guatemala demanded that Belize give up all the land south of the Monkey River as a way of settling the dispute. The Belize government decided it was time to create a new strategy. This break-out period occurred from 1975 to 1981. Belizeans took the issue to the international community and won their support.
It was believed that international support would strengthen Belize's position, force Britain to support Belize's insistence on keeping its territory intact, win the backing of Latin American countries, and gain the support of the U.S.
Most countries did not know enough about the controversy and so supported Guatemala's claim. Because Belize was not independent it had no diplomatic relations with any country. However, Belize's close relations with several CARICOM countries helped its representatives attend Commonwealth meetings and United Nations sessions. Belizeans were able to lobby for support. Of greatest importance was the support Belize received from the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM).
Lobbying around the world
The Non-Aligned Movement was formed in 1961 to offer an alternative of peace and co-operation while the world was dividing into two blocs: one on the side of the United States of America and Western Europe, and the other on the side of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) and Eastern Europe.
It was very difficult to get the Latin American countries to understand and support Belize's position. In 1975 at the U.N. the only Spanish-speaking Latin American country that supported Belize was Cuba. In 1976, the President of Panama, Omar Torrijos, was persuaded to support our cause. He actively campaigned among other Latin American countries. Mexico, Venezuela, Argentina and Peru joined the support in 1977. In 1979, the Sandinista revolution of Nicaragua overthrew the Somoza dictatorship, Guatemala's most committed ally. The new government declared its full support for Belize.
From 1975 to 1979, the U.S. abstained on all the United Nations resolutions concerning Belize's independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity. Finally, in 1980, it changed its policy of neutrality and voted in favour of the U.N. resolution that called for the independence of Belize. This resolution was adopted in November 1980. It demanded the secure independence of Belize, with all its territory, before the next session of the U.N. in 1981. It called on Britain to continue to defend Belize, and on all countries to come to its assistance. One hundred and thirty-nine countries voted in favour of the resolution, with seven abstentions and none against. Guatemala refused to vote.
That same year, the Organization of American States (OAS) fully endorsed the U.N. resolution. This was an important victory, because until then the OAS had supported Guatemala.


Continued Negotiations
The next problem was achieving independence with territorial integrity and security. It was important to keep Britain's full support since their military presence after independence was vital. Belize also had to satisfy its new important ally, the U.S.A. We had to prove that we were doing everything possible to find a negotiated settlement to the dispute. And we had to convince the government of Guatemala to accept a peaceful solution without expecting us to give up land or give up control over our land.
The hope was to negotiate a solution before becoming independent. Guatemala needed to find a way to drop its claim. In February 1981, Guatemala made serious efforts to reach agreement by dropping its demand for mainland cession which it had insisted on for many years. But agreement could still not be reached because Belize refused to agree to anything that would not give us full sovereignty and territorial integrity.
On March 11, 1981, Britain, Guatemala and Belize signed "The Heads of Agreement". This document stated that there was no final agreement nor even specific proposals, but rather areas for discussion that would form the basis for a final agreement after negotiations. Guatemala agreed to recognize an independent Belize within its existing borders, but only if agreement could be reached on other points in the document. These other points included the "use and enjoyment" of certain cayes, free port facilities, freedom of transit on two roads, facilitation of oil pipelines, co-operation in security, and a non-aggression pact. These were not spelled out specifically. It was left for future negotiators of the three countries to hammer out the details and reach a final agreement acceptable to all sides. The Heads of Agreement was interpreted by some sections of the Belizean population as unacceptable concessions given to Guatemala. The result was wide-spread disquiet, uncertainty and civil action including rioting in Belize City and setting fire to a government office. This agreement lapsed before independence.
Independence
In our international campaign and in negotiations, Belize insisted that the right of the people to independence was a separate issue from the negotiations to end the Guatemalan claim. We insisted that independence must be achieved by 1981 even if negotiations were not successful. If necessary, negotiations would continue after independence.
The negotiation failed, but Belize went on to independence, assisted in our security by the continued British military presence and by our membership in the United Nations.
On September 21, 1981, Belize became an independent nation. In every town and in many villages throughout the country, a midnight flag-raising ceremony was held. The new flag of Belize was raised to the strains of the Belizean anthem.
We have seen how, unlike most countries, Belize entered actively on the world stage while it was still a colony. Indeed, its entry on the world stage was a necessary and crucial part of the struggle for independence. But Belize could not be a full member of the international organizations while we were still a colony. Now that Belize is independent, it has all the rights of a sovereign state in the international arena.
On September 25, 1981, Belize was admitted as a member of the United Nations. On the same day it became a full member of the Non-Aligned Movement, after being a member with "special status" since 1976. On Independence Day Belize was also admitted to membership of the Commonwealth of Nations.
Today, Belize plays its full role as a member of the Organization of American States and other international social, political and economic organizations. As an independent state, Belize has gained the respect of most of the nations of the world, including Guatemala. Although the Guatemalan claim has not yet been completely resolved, Guatemala recognized Belize's independence in 1991, and the two countries have finally established full diplomatic relations.
You can find a much more detailed report on the Belize-Guatemala Territorial Issue here.

INFLUENCIAS REGIONALES SOBRE BELICE/ REGIONAL INFLUENCES ON BELIZE

Chapter 13
Although Belize was a British colony until September 21, 1981, the United States of America had a strong influence on Belize. Its influence was actually greater than that of Britain or any other country in the region. In 1935, the British Governor of Belize, Sir Alan Burns, wrote: "The whole colony is, however, largely influenced by the comparative proximity of the U.S. and the people as a whole are more Americans than British in their outlook. This may be due to a limited extent to the cinema, but is more directly attributable to the influence of the trade and education." The U.S.'s interest and influence on Belize began well over a hundred years ago. In order to understand its growth, it is first necessary to study the expansion of U.S. influence throughout the region. USA Influence The United States of America won its independence in 1776 after a bloody war with Britain. Two generations later, it was well on its way to becoming the greatest power in the western hemisphere. On December 2, 1823, U.S. President James Monroe made a speech to Congress which introduced its new foreign policy, the "Monroe Doctrine". In short, he told the European powers to keep their "hands off the Americas". The U.S. considered the Caribbean and Central America its back yard and wanted to control the countries and instill U.S. values in them. As U.S. influence expanded throughout the Americas, their businesses began to invest heavily in these countries. In 1903 the U.S. supported an insurrection in Panama, which was then a part of Columbia. This resulted in the setting up of the independent state of Panama. A.treaty was immediately signed giving the U.S. the right to build a canal that connected the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific. The Treaty also allowed the U.S. to rent the land from Panama in perpetuity. From the early 1900s U.S. economic interests in the Americas increased significantly. U.S. investments rose from 17 per cent in 1914 to 40 per cent in 1929. These investments were protected by U.S. military strength. Between 1898 and 1920, U.S. marines landed in the countries of the region more than 20 times. Before the military withdrew, the U.S. often protected their interests by leaving behind local military dictators, such as the Somozas in Nicaragua, and Rafael Trujillo in the Dominican Republic. The U.S. respected British sovereignty over Belize, and this protected Belize from the kinds of military, economic, and political interventions that took place in other parts of Central America. But because the U.S. is so close to Belize, its influence was inevitable. In recent years, U.S involvement in the Americas, although highly economic, has been tempered toward more humanitarian concerns. In 1978, for example, President Jimmy Carter re-negotiated a new Panama Canal Treaty with the then President of Panama, General Omar Torrijos, which allowed Panama to regain full sovereignty over the canal zone. U.S. Role in the Guatemalan Claim When the U.S. and Britain signed the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty in 1850, they hoped to resolve some of their differences in Central America. Article 1 of the Treaty agreed that the two countries would not "fortify, or colonize, or assume, or exercise any dominion over Nicaragua, Costa Rica, the Mosquito Coast, or any part of Central America". It was not clear whether the term "Central America" included Belize. Based on the treaty, in 1853 a new U.S. government tried to persuade Britain to withdraw from Central America and Belize. The frustrated British Foreign Secretary, Lord Palmerston, declared that "These Yankees are most astute bullies and are always trying to see how far they can go." In 1856 this dispute was finally resolved when Britain and the U.S. signed the Dallas-Clarendon Treaty. The "Mosquito Protectorate" and the Bay Islands, which were held by Britain, were to be part of Nicaragua and Honduras respectively. British Honduras was declared to be unaffected by the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty and Belize's southern border was recognized as the Sarstoon River. The hope was that the western limits with Guatemala would be fixed within two years. Three years later the Anglo-Guatemalan Treaty of 1859 was signed, and the dispute was temporarily settled. Trade Trade between Belize and the U.S. during the 1800s and 1900s was confined to the export of mahogany and chicle and the import of food and other supplies. But trade was not always legal, as Belize merchants became infamous for smuggling goods to the Confederates during the U.S. Civil War in the 1860's and for smuggling whisky to the U.S. during prohibition in the 1920's. by the 1930s the importance of U.S. trade rivaled that of the British. By 1949, over 70 per cent of Belize's imports came from the U.S. Their share of Belize's exports also increased significantly in later years - from 12.4 per cent in 1961 to 33.5 per cent in 1965, largely as a result of the sugar quota granted by the U.S. to Belize. In 1981, 60.8 per cent of our exports went to the U.S., and 35.4 per cent of our imports came from that country. In 1994, we sold 53.1 per cent of our products to the U.S. and bought 41.5 per cent of our total imports from them. Immigration and Emigration In the 1860's, British settlers in Belize encouraged immigration from the U.S. Hundreds of Confederates came to Belize after the Civil War in search of land to develop. Few of the Confederates, however, stayed - most returned to the U.S. or moved on to Latin America. A group of Methodists from Mississippi did settle in the Toledo District in 1867 and established 12 sugar estates, but most were gone by 1910. Emigration of Belizeans to the United States of America has been more consistent. During the Second World War, over 2,000 men migrated to the Panama Canal Zone to work for U.S. employers. In 1941 and the following years, thousands of workers went to work on farms in the southern United States. Since then, a steady flow of Belizeans have emigrated to the U.S. in search of work. About 60 per cent enter or stay in the country illegally. This emigration has had a number of important influences in Belize. Economically, the money the emigrants send home is an important source of income for their families. They have also brought U.S. culture to Belize. In recent years, some emigrants have returned to settle in Belize and are contributing to the development of the nation. Others who have been deported because of illegal activities in the United States have brought back some of the violence of U.S. society, and its negative consequences. Investment, Speculation and Influence Important United States investment in Belize dates back to at least 1911, when the United Fruit Company purchased the Middlesex Estate in Stann Creek Valley. They began large- scale operations on 12,500 acres of land. Although the estate was later abandoned due to plant disease, other U.S. companies have continued to invest in Belize over the years. After the Second World War, many foreigners speculated in land in Belize. Hundreds of thousands of acres were bought by U.S. nationals. In 1980 even the B.E.C. was bought out by a company from the U.S. By independence, about 80 per cent of all privately owned land, or about 40 per cent of all land in Belize, was owned by U.S. citizens. Government lands, most of which are leased to Belizeans, made up the rest. Other aspects of U.S. influence include education and culture. Over the years, missionaries from the U.S. have established schools in partnership with the Government. In the 1930's they were said to be responsible for the education of more than half the total population. A major contribution to this influence was the presence of Roman Catholic Jesuits priests from the United States who ran primary schools throughout the country. The Jesuits established a secondary school, Saint John's College in 1887. This school played a prominent role in the rise of an educated class which later led the challenge to the colonial system.The cultural influence of the U.S. is also felt through the media: television, newspapers, magazines, and radio. Mexico, Central America and the CaribbeanAll these influences - economic, social, cultural, and educational - have resulted in a strongly-felt U.S. presence in every aspect of the country's life. But as far back as 1950, George Price wrote that Belize's "economy and way of life are interdependent with the U.S.A. and with Central America". Before colonialism, the people who lived in what is now Belize were linked socially and commercially with Mexico, Guatemala, northern Honduras and El Salvador. These connections grew weaker because of British and North American interests and disputes with Guatemala. Now that Belize is independent and its disputes are for the most part resolved, these links are again growing stronger. The Caste War of Yucatan in 1847 brought many Mexican refugees into Belize. The war also brought to the forefront the need to define Belize's northern boundary with Mexico. The boundary was finally agreed upon in 1893, but the treaty between Britain and Mexico was not finalized until 1897. At one time, Mexico expressed interest in claiming a portion of northern Belize if Guatemala gained Belizean territory. Yet Mexico has strongly supported Belize's independence since 1977, when it voted in favour of a pro-Belize resolution at the United Nations. Since independence, the two countries have formed a strong bond of friendship through social, commercial and educational agreements that have helped our country greatly. Our relations with Central American countries were slow to form because of continued border disputes with the Government of Guatemala. During the 1970s, civil wars in Central America forced many people to leave their countries in search of a safer environment. Many came to Belize and settled mostly in the rural areas. The new immigrants have gradually integrated into Belizean society and have contributed to the development of the country. With more immigration from the area and less tension with Guatemala, a closer relationship has developed. Belize's relations with the English-speaking Caribbean date back to the British conquest of Jamaica in 1655. The British conducted the defense and administration of the settlement of Belize from their base in Jamaica. Slaves and colonial administrators were imported from Jamaica and other British colonies in the Caribbean, and the laws of Jamaica were enforced in the settlement. Belize's experience with colonialism was similar to the Caribbean's. Because of this we share many social, cultural, economic and political similarities. The newly independent Caribbean countries were the leaders in supporting Belizean independence and our diplomatic resistance to the Guatemalan claim to our territory. Our membership in the Caribbean Free Trade Association (CARIFTA) and later the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) was the first time we participated in international organizations. Since independence, Belize has worked closely with Caribbean countries in regional integration efforts

UNA SOCIEDAD TRANSFORMADA

Chapter 12
A Society Transformed
Some important changes began to occur in Belize once colonialism was seriously challenged in the 1950's. This chapter explains some of the changes that make the Belize of today different from the Belize we described in Chapter 9.
Land Distribution
In 1962, a new law was passed to give people rights over the land they lived on. But it only required the landlord to give one year's notice to throw the farmers off the land. To give farmers more control over their land, the government had to use an older law, the 1947 Land Acquisition Ordinance. Under this law, the government could buy land from big landlords and redistribute it to the people. The government could also accept land from big landowners, like the B.E.C., in exchange for land taxes they owed. This made it possible for the government to distribute some 200,000 acres to Belizean farmers between 1971 and 1975. From 1975 to 1982, a further 325,000 acres were redistributed.
We have already seen that in 1971 many foreigners owned land in Belize and did not use it. But an important step towards preserving Belize's land was the passing of the Alien Landholding Ordinance in 1973. This law regulated the right of foreigners to buy land, and introduced certain development conditions. Foreigners had to get a license from the Minister after showing how they would develop the land. This law helped to reduce the number of foreigners who bought land to re-sell it for profit. But there were still changes to be made, because even after independence, most of the best agricultural land was owned by foreigners.
Land Use
Perhaps the most important change in land use was the shift from an economy based on forestry to one based on agriculture. In the 1950's forestry finally became less important in Belize's economy.Forest products fell from 80 per cent of our export trade in the 1950's to only 1.9 per cent of our export trade in 1981. That year, the value of agricultural exports was $105.5 million, while the value of forestry exports was $2.6 million. Today, forestry's share of the export trade is 3.2 per cent.
Belize has about 5.7 million acres of land, but only 2.2 million acres are considered suitable for agricultural development. However, much of this land is not easy to reach. In 1981, 237,000 acres of land had permanent crops, and 20,000 acres of land were used for milpa farming.
Our forests are still a very important source of wealth to us, but we must be careful to conserve and use them properly. With the increase in tourism in the last few years, the preservation of our forests and marine resources is becoming more important. The creative use of the forest, in such ways as eco- tourism, herbal medicine and chicle production can provide many jobs without harming the environment.
Another important change has been the government's decision to set aside lands as protected areas, where the land is closely managed to avoid damage to the environment and our historical heritage. These protected areas provide homes for a wide variety of rare and endangered animals and plants. The protected areas include national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, forest, nature, marine and archaeological reserves.
The second most important crop is citrus. This industry is centered in the Stann Creek Valley. In 1994, the total value of citrus exports was 35.1 million dollars. Several other agricultural products for export are encouraged, notably rice, bananas, and beef.
There have been important improvements in the conditions of the small farmer. Attempts have been made to help farmers with credit, markets, land preparation, roads and technical assistance. In all these areas, however, there is rarely enough help to meet the growing demand.
There is also need for better planning and administration. The small farmer has many disadvantages, mostly the result of the lack of an agricultural tradition.
Since the 1970's, the fishing industry also became important. Many years ago, fishery resources were controlled by foreigners who bought the products cheaply from our fishermen. In the 1970's, fishermen joined into powerful, well organized co-operatives. Fishing villages became prosperous. In addition, the income from exporting fish went directly to the fishermen. In 1994, the value of our fish exports was $26.4 million, mostly from lobster sales. The importance of some fishing co-operatives has since declined. Today many fishermen work in the tourism industry, and have become tourist guides, diving instructors and hotel workers.
Trade
In the early days of colonialism, the settlement was only allowed to trade with Britain, its "mother country." This continued as Britain became the leading industrial nation in the 19th century. The U.S.A. has since become our major trading partner.
Most of our exports go to the developed countries.This makes our economy very dependent on the economic conditions in these countries. Our major exports are agricultural products. the majority of these products go out as raw materials, or only partly processed or packaged. Our imported goods, however, are chiefly manufactured and processed items. The cost of manufactured goods is higher and prices increase frequently. Therefore, the price of our imports usually rise while the prices of our exports often falls. Both the price of raw materials and manufactured goods are set by industrial countries.
The result is a widening of the "trade gap" - meaning that more and more, the value of what we buy is greater than the value of what we sell. For example, in 1975, the value of exports was $129.7 million, while the value of imports was $185.5 million. The gap was $55.8 million. In 1981 all our exports earned $238 million while our imports cost $323.9 million - a difference of $85.9 million. In 1994, the trade gap was 226.6 millions.
Unless Belize can reduce its import costs and increase the value of its exports, this problem will continue. As an agricultural country with a small population, we can produce more of the food we need. In order for this situation to change, Belize has to spend less money on imports and concentrate on growing its own food.
There have been some attempts to diversify our trade. In 1971, Belize joined the Caribbean Free Trade Association, which in 1974 became the Caribbean Community (CARICOM). This is a trading block made up of 13 Commonwealth Caribbean countries with about five million people. By trading with each other we encourage development in each of our countries. We also lessen our dependence on only one or two industrial countries. Increasingly, even the developed countries are forming trade blocks to protect their trade. For example, in 1994, Canada, the United States of America and Mexico formed the North American Free Trade Association (NAFTA) to regulate trade.
Infrastructure
These economic changes would not have been possible without great improvements in what is known as the country's "infrastructure" - including services such as roads, communications, electricity, and water. The development of a road network throughout the country has been one of the most important changes. The Belize City deep-water port is also an important development. The expanded international airport, the small domestic airport, and the modern telephone system established in the 1970's all aid communications. In the 1960's, the increased distribution of electricity country-wide helped our economic growth and greatly improved the quality of life for thousands of Belizeans. Finally, the establishment of the new capital city of Belmopan in the Cayo District created a new infrastructure and marked a new direction by developing the interior of Belize.


Social Changes
The most dramatic change in Belizean society has been the growth in population. In 1931 there were just over 50,000 people in Belize. In 1946, the population was still less than 60,000. But by 1970, the population had doubled to just under 120,000. In 1980, it was over 145,000 and by the 1991 census, 200,000 people lived in Belize. There has also been a steady decrease in urbanization and an increase in the rural population.

Educational opportunities in British Honduras were limited to primary and secondary school. Very few people had an opportunity to attend university. The few who studied abroad would return and become part of the Civil Service or enter private business or professional careers.

Self-government brought marginal relief to the working classes but in the late 1960's and 1970's the PUP and the local middle class elite found themselves challenged by a more radical element of Belizean society - a younger, more educated, more vocal group of students who had returned from studies at universities in the US, the West Indies and the UK. This group was called UBAD.(United Black Association for Development) PAC (People's Action Committee) and RAM.(Revolitical Action Movement). The most prominent of these groups was UBAD, which was formed in 1969 as a movement for black nationalism, but evolved in the 1970's as a political party, the UBAD Party for Freedom, Justice and Equality.
Another major change has been the increasing involvement of the population in the political, economic and social life of Belize. In the past, the majority of the population had no say, and the rights of many were ignored. Today that is changing.
Educational opportunities are part of this change. Under colonialism, very little was invested in education. In 1930, only 3.3 per cent of the country's budget was for education; in 1951 it was still only 8 per cent. In the 1990's about 17 per cent of the budget is used for education. The number of primary schools has grown as well. Every district now has at least one secondary school, and most have Sixth Forms. The University College of Belize (UCB) has replaced the former Belize College of Arts, Science and Technology (BELCAST). Adult education centres are being created, and centres for employment training and vocational centres are now found throughout the country.
Important advances have also been made in other social services such as health and housing. Although the government has begun to provide low-cost housing, the need is still great, especially in Belize City. The social security system, which began in 1981, provides an important service for workers by insuring them against hardships.
Voluntary Associations
An important development that also helped to bring many changes is the increase in the organization of people in unions and other types of non-governmental organizations (NGOs). A major change was the growth of the trade union movement. By uniting, members acquired a strength which the individual worker could never have. With this power they negotiated with their employers and gained many benefits, such as better wages and working conditions. Forming trade unions also helped the workers to stop some of the injustices in the economic system.
NGOs, on the other hand, provide social and humanitarian services and help government with their responsibilities in these areas.
Another form of organization is the co-operative movement. Producers combine their knowledge and finances to develop their industry successfully. We have seen how co-operatives made development and prosperity possible for fishermen. Farmers also rely on their co-operatives for technical assistance and marketing.
The growth of the credit union movement has also helped to provide loans and services for those with little money. Today there are 23 active credit unions in Belize with a membership of about 30,000 and total savings of over $14 million. In addition, there are other types of people's organizations, such as the associations of sugar, citrus, grain, and livestock producers, tourism and businesses.
These organizations give people the opportunity to participate more fully in the economic, social, and political life of the country.
Looking Forward
Much has been accomplished since the 1950's. Throughout our history, there were many social divisions in Belize - Today some of these divisions, along with economic differences, still keep many young people from the opportunities they have a right to. That many of our qualified people come from humble origins is a remarkable achievement.
Many colonial attitudes have changed, and since independence Belizeans have developed a new appreciation for their country and a better understanding of Belize's place in the modern world.

EL MOVIMIENTO NACIONALISTA/ THE NATIONALIST MOVEMENT

Chapter 11

The struggle of the workers led by Soberanis played an important part in the birth of the nationalist movement in Belize. People began to question what colonialism had done for Belize. They began to wonder why a country with so many resources, with such wealthy landowners and merchants, had so many poor people. The poor economic and social conditions in the 1950's also helped them begin to think about self-government and independence.
Economic and Social Conditions
During the 1930's and 1940's the economy was still based on forestry, but this industry was declining continuously. During World War II (1939-1945) the industry had revived for a while. Unemployment had also been eased because thousands of workers emigrated to Britain for forestry jobs, to Panama to work in building the Canal and to the southern United Stated to work in agricultural estates. But after the war they came home to unemployment and poverty.
A local legislator stated in 1949 that "the privations suffered during the Depression were but bagatelles compared to the sufferings the people are undergoing now." He warned that people might be forced by their misery and hunger to resort to crime and rioting.
The working class suffered from unemployment, low wages, bad housing, severe malnutrition, and poor health care. In early 1950, a British reporter complained that "the Colony has always been run exclusively for what could be got out of it . . . of the 35,000 employable from a total population of 60,000, 8,000 or nearly a quarter are without work or working part-time, earning less than twelve shillings per week. Belize City, with its 22,000 people, is about the most shockingly depressed spot in the whole British/West Indies - perhaps in the Commonwealth. Hunger, poverty, the filthy conditions under which the people live are incredible."
The devaluation of the Belize dollar, on December 31, 1949, resulted in the immediate worsening of the workers' situation.
Campaign Against Colonialism
The People's Committee formed the very night the Belize dollar was devalued. What started as a protest against devaluation became a general assault against the entire colonial system. On September 29, 1950 the People's Committee became the People's United Party (PUP). Its objective was "to gain for the people of this country political independence and economic independence." After a split in 1951, the main leaders of the party were Leigh Richardson, George Price and Philip Goldson.
One of the first political tasks set by these leaders was to create a national unity out of the divisions created by colonialism. They travelled throughout the country calling on the people to unite and fight for their rights and for a say in running their country. They educated the people about the problems of colonialism. They explained how poverty and misery were caused by the system of exploitation, and the special role the B.E.C. played in this process.
These young leaders were not only concerned with raising the living standards of the people, but they were also determined to make a complete break with the colonial past. In a memorial to the King from the People's Committee in February 1950, they declared that the social evils under which Belizeans were suffering "are caused by colonial exploitation that takes abroad the wealth of the country and leaves it impoverished and destitute. There is in us a growing and determined aspiration to eventual self-government."
Alliance with Workers
From the time of the People's Committee, a strong alliance was formed with the working class movement. The working class was represented by the General Workers Union (GWU). By 1951, the leaders of the PUP and the GWU were almost the same.
In October 1952 they called a national strike to protest against the economic conditions which had steadily worsened since devaluation. Even occasional rises in wages made little difference because prices kept increasing. The B.E.C. was a major target of the strike, but government workers went on strike too, as well as workers of the United Fruit Company and several other companies. The strike was called off after ten days when the government and the other companies - except the B.E.C. - agreed to negotiate with the union for better wages and working conditions.
The B.E.C. held out for 49 days and stopped the strike by using scab labour protected by police. In spite of this, the leaders felt that the strike was a success. It had shown that working class solidarity gave the workers power and won them benefits. This established the PUP in the public mind as a party for working people. The membership in the GWU increased quickly to over 8,000.
The Constitutional Struggle
Although the PUP emphasized change in the economic conditions, their main effort was to challenge the colonial political system. They demanded political power for the people, and this required constitutional change. First the people had to be given the right to vote.
In the fight for universal adult suffrage, the right for all adults to vote, the nationalist leaders tried to change people's attitudes. Many people, especially those from the middle class, argued that the colony was too underdeveloped, its people too backward and illiterate, to have the right to vote. Instead they suggested three options: a literacy test; a system of indirect voting by the districts outside of Belize City; and reserve powers for the governor.
In a report on constitutional change published in 1951, the middle class praised what they called the tradition of "British Institutions, British laws, and those high principles of fair play, freedom and justice which are characteristic of the Anglo-Saxon." They argued that the colonial system had created a fair administration, under which every resident could "retain for his own use the fruit of his labours." Most workers, however, did not agree.
The PUP attacked the recommendations made in the report. The argument that the country must be developed before colonialism could be abolished ignored the important fact that colonialism was the cause of underdevelopment. In order for the country to develop, its people had to be free. Leigh Richardson explained in 1952:
"But those who argue that social, economic and educational development must take place first, before political independence, are putting the cart before the horse. On the contrary, political independence is the first essential step forward, in order that a government may be established, representative of the people and not subservient to the exploiting monopolist interest. Only then does the possibility exist to utilize the resources of the country for independent social and economic development, instead of for tribute to absentee shareholders."
There were some people in Belize who felt threatened by any changes from the colonial system. These were the "loyalists". They comprised mostly those who benefitted from the colonial system - traders, civil servants, and some professionals. They were the "middle class" who felt their opposition to the nationalist movement was their patriotic duty.
The PUP, with the strong support of the people, won universal adult suffrage in 1954. In elections held that year it won eight of the nine elected seats and 67 per cent of the vote. In the following years, Belizeans went on to win increased participation through new constitutions. In 1964, ten years after adult suffrage, Belizeans gained self-government.
The Political Struggle
It was a long struggle of political and civil action that enabled the people to make gains in the 1950's. There was a lot of hard work involved in organizing the movement for decolonization. At times the struggle became violent. In 1950, a crowd stoned the homes of politicians regarded as pro- Britishers, and knocked out the police guard at the Governor's residence. The government declared a state of emergency that lasted 137 days. Violent incidents also occurred during a national strike in 1952.
Generally, the threat of violence and the reality of thousands of people voicing their demands was enough to cause the authorities concern. They were forced to make concessions.
The colonial administrators created a new party financed by the B.E.C. They used force by declaring a state of emergency, passing laws, prosecuting and jailing leaders. They gave in to small reforms. They appealed to people's loyalty to the King and the British Empire. But none of these tactics worked.